logo

Articles

Vol. 3 No. 2 (2023): Teaching practices in times of digital transformation

Digital transformation in foreign language education: Examining the position of the EFL teacher in ICT literacy diffusion

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21428/8c225f6e.d8ba13fb
Submitted
11 August 2026
Published
15-08-2026

Abstract

Digital transformation and ICT adoption in Japanese higher education has lagged behind other developed countries. Drawing on Diffusion of Innovation theory, this preliminary case study examines the role of English foreign language (EFL) teachers as opinion leaders in information communication technology (ICT) literacy diffusion in the Japanese university context. The preliminary findings indicate EFL teachers enhance ICT literacy in breadth and depth for both teachers and students. With these findings this study proposes a tentative conceptual model that adds to the current scholarship on ICT utilization in Japanese higher education by illuminating how teachers can support digital transformation to expand the breadth and depth of ICT literacy, and cross-cultural diffusion of technology. Policy and pedagogical implications for in-service teacher professional development are discussed.

References

  1. Abbitt, J. T. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs about technology integration and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) among preservice teachers. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 27(4), 134-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2011.10784670
  2. Aoki, K. (2010). The use of ICT and e-learning in higher education in Japan. International Journal of Educational and Pedagogical Sciences, 4(6), 986-990. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1071140
  3. Apple Inc. (2023). Apple Distinguised Educators. https://www.apple.com/education/k12/apple-distinguished-educator/
  4. Arnold, D., & Sangrà, A. (2018). Dawn or dusk of the 5 th age of research in educational technology? A literature review on (e-) leadership for technology-enhanced learning in higher education (2013-2017). International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0104-3
  5. Aslan, E., & Thompson, A. S. (2017). Are They Really “Two Different Species”? Implicitly Elicited Student Perceptions About NESTs and NNESTs. Tesol Journal, 8(2), 277-294. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.268
  6. Atkins, M. S., Frazier, S. L., Leathers, S. J., Graczyk, P. A., Talbott, E., Jakobsons, L., Adil, J. A., Marinez-Lora, A., Demirtas, H., & Gibbons, R. B. (2008). Teacher key opinion leaders and mental health consultation in low-income urban schools. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(5), 905. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013036
  7. Badley, G. (1986). The teacher as change agent. Journal of In-Service Education, 12(3), 151-158. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305763860120305
  8. Bandyopadhyay, K., & Fraccastoro, K. A. (2007). The effect of culture on user acceptance of information technology. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 19(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.01923
  9. Bannister, N. A. (2018). Research Commentary: Theorizing Collaborative Mathematics Teacher Learning in Communities of Practice. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education JRME, 49(2), 125-139. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.49.2.0125
  10. Baran, E., Correia, A.-P., & Thompson, A. (2011). Transforming online teaching practice: critical analysis of the literature on the roles and competencies of online teachers. Distance Education, 32(3), 421-439. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2011.610293
  11. Benavides, L. M. C., Tamayo Arias, J. A., Arango Serna, M. D., Branch Bedoya, J. W., & Burgos, D. (2020). Digital transformation in higher education institutions: A systematic literature review. Sensors, 20(11), 3291. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113291
  12. BEREC. (2021). Study on post Covid measures to close the digital divide: Final Report. Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications. https://www.berec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/files/document_register_store/2021/10/BoR_%2821%29_138_Study_on_post_Covid_measures_to_close_the_digital_divide._Final_report_-_vf3.pdf
  13. Bingimlas, K. A. (2009). Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning environments: A review of the literature. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 5(3), 235-245. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75275
  14. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  15. Buckingham, D. (2013). Beyond technology: Children's learning in the age of digital culture. John Wiley & Sons.
  16. Burnham, T. A., Frels, J. K., & Mahajan, V. (2003). Consumer switching costs: a typology, antecedents, and consequences. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 31(2), 109-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070302250897
  17. Chun, S. Y. (2014). EFL learners' beliefs about native and non-native English-speaking teachers: perceived strengths, weaknesses, and preferences. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(6), 563-579. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2014.889141
  18. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage Publications.
  19. Davies, R. J., & Ikeno, O. (2011). Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Tuttle Publishing.
  20. Dooley, K. E. (1999). Towards a holistic model for the diffusion of educational technologies: An integrative review of educational innovation studies. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 2(4), 35-45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/jeductechsoci.2.4.35
  21. Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Addressing first-and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), 47-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299597
  22. Ertmer, P. A. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4), 25-39. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504683
  23. Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 255-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2010.10782551
  24. Ertmer, P. A., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., Sadik, O., Sendurur, E., & Sendurur, P. (2012). Teacher beliefs and technology integration practices: A critical relationship. Computers & Education, 59(2), 423-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.02.001
  25. Funamori, M. (2017). The Issues Japanese Higher Education Face in the Digital Age--Are Japanese Universities to Blame for the Slow Progress towards an Information-based Society. International Journal of Institutional Research and Management, 1(1), 37-51. https://doi.org/10.52731/ijirm.v1.i1.112
  26. Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053002003
  27. Gefen, D. (2000). E-commerce: the role of familiarity and trust. Omega, 28(6), 725-737. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-0483(00)00021-9
  28. Giri, R. R. W., Wanda, V., & Irawan, H. (2019). Internet Banking Adoption Analysis in Medan and Bandung City using the Unified Theory of Use and Acceptance of Technology (UTAUT) Model with Culture as Moderator. 1st International Conference on Economics, Business, Entrepreneurship, and Finance (ICEBEF 2018). https://doi.org/10.2991/icebef-18.2019.149
  29. Google LLC. (2023). Distinguish yourself in your classroom and career with certifications from Google for Education. https://edu.google.com/intl/ALL_uk/for-educators/certification-programs/product-expertise/?modal_active=none
  30. Grammens, M., Voet, M., Vanderlinde, R., Declercq, L., & De Wever, B. (2022). A systematic review of teacher roles and competences for teaching synchronously online through videoconferencing technology. Educational Research Review, 37, 100461. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100461
  31. Haga, S. (2021). Interculture—boundary, bridge, or networked activity system? A systematic scoping review of intercultural work teams in higher education. INTED2021 Proceedings, 604-614. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Satchie-Haga/publication/350428923_INTERCULTURE-BOUNDARY_BRIDGE_OR_NETWORKED_ACTIVITY_SYSTEM_A_SYSTEMATIC_SCOPING_REVIEW_OF_INTERCULTURAL_WORK-TEAMS_IN_HIGHER_EDUCATION/links/6085d853881fa114b42b0c73/INTERCULTURE-BOUNDARY-BRIDGE-OR-NETWORKED-ACTIVITY-SYSTEM-A-SYSTEMATIC-SCOPING-REVIEW-OF-INTERCULTURAL-WORK-TEAMS-IN-HIGHER-EDUCATION.pdf
  32. Harjunen, E. (2009). How do teachers view their own pedagogical authority? Teachers and Teaching: Theory and practice, 15(1), 109-129. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540600802661345
  33. Harjunen, E. (2011). Students' consent to a teacher's pedagogical authority. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 55(4), 403-424. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.587325
  34. Hasan, Z. T. (2017). How beliefs of English-language professors in Japan influence their pedagogy and teaching strategies related to the use of technology. Ed.D. Dissertation, Northeastern University.
  35. Hodge, N. (2022). A Peer Driven Technology Adoption Model: Using Communities of Practice to Influence Technology Adoption. Arizona State University. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/peer-driven-technology-adoption-model-using/docview/2671705149/se-2
  36. Huang, F., & Teo, T. (2019). Influence of teacher-perceived organisational culture and school policy on Chinese teachers’ intention to use technology: an extension of technology acceptance model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09722-y
  37. Inan, F. A., & Lowther, D. L. (2010). Factors affecting technology integration in K-12 classrooms: a path model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(2), 137-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-009-9132-y
  38. International Trade Administration. (2021). Japan: GIGA Update (EDTECH) (Market Intelligence, Issue). https://www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/japan-giga-update-edtech
  39. Iordache, C., Mariën, I., & Baelden, D. (2017). Developing digital skills and competences: A quick-scan analysis of 13 digital literacy models. Italian Journal of Sociology of Education, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.14658/pupj-ijse-2017-1-2
  40. Jääskelä, P., Häkkinen, P., & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2017). Teacher beliefs regarding learning, pedagogy, and the use of technology in higher education. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 49(3-4), 198-211.
  41. Janssen, J., Stoyanov, S., Ferrari, A., Punie, Y., Pannekeet, K., & Sloep, P. (2013). Experts' views on digital competence: Commonalities and differences. Computers & Education, 68, 473-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.06.008
  42. JETRO. (2021). ICT Initiatives: Promotion of digitalization due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic. Retrieved from https://www.jetro.go.jp/en/invest/attractive_sectors/ict/government_initiatives.html
  43. Kakuchi, S. (2022, November 9). University reforms tap post-pandemic shifts in attitudes. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20221109064526209
  44. Kang, B. (2021). How the COVID-19 pandemic is reshaping the education service. The Future of Service Post-COVID-19 Pandemic, Volume 1: Rapid Adoption of Digital Service Technology, 15-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4126-5_2
  45. Kasuya, M. (2008). Classroom interaction affected by power distance. Language Teaching Methodology and Classroom Research and Research Methods, 1-12. https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-artslaw/cels/essays/languageteaching/LanguageTeachingMethodologyMichikoKasuya.pdf
  46. Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1966). Personal Influence, The part played by people in the flow of mass communications. Transaction Publishers.
  47. Keio University. (2020a). オンライン授業に関する調査結果 学生と教員では意見に差が (Survey results on online classes - Differences in opinions between students and teachers). https://sfcclip.net/2020/07/50376/
  48. Keio University. (2020b). オンライン授業受講に関する調査結果報告 (Survey on taking classes online - result report). https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KtOwhVEgSJ4tNlI0bvmBDr3wBkgVbv96/view
  49. Kim, C., Kim, M. K., Lee, C., Spector, J. M., & DeMeester, K. (2013). Teacher beliefs and technology integration. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, 76-85.
  50. Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Cain, W. (2013). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? Journal of Education, 193(3), 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741319300303
  51. Lamb, P. (2015). Peer-learning between pre-service teachers: embracing Lesson Study. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies, 4(4), 343-361. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLLS-03-2015-0012
  52. Lawrence, J. E., & Tar, U. A. (2018). Factors that influence teachers’ adoption and integration of ICT in teaching/learning process. Educational Media International, 55(1), 79-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2018.1439712
  53. Li, L., & Walsh, S. (2011). Technology uptake in Chinese EFL classes. Language Teaching Research, 15(1), 99-125.
  54. Luppicini, R. (2007). Review of computer mediated communication research for education. Instructional Science, 35, 141-185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-006-9001-6l
  55. Ma, L. P. F. (2012). Strengths and weaknesses of NESTS and NNESTs: Perceptions of NNESTs in Hong Kong. Linguistics and Education, 23(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2011.09.005
  56. Masullo, C. P. C. (2017). Change Agents and Opinion Leaders. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 18(2), 57-71.
  57. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative Research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons.
  58. MEXT. (2011). The vision for ICT in education: Toward the creation of a learning system and schools suitable for the 21st century. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2017/06/26/1305484_14_1.pdf
  59. MEXT. (2012). Project for Promotion of Global Human Resource Development. https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highered/title02/detail02/sdetail02/sdetail02/1374093.htm
  60. MEXT. (2014). Top Global University Project. https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highered/title02/detail02/sdetail02/1395420.htm
  61. MEXT. (2020a). About the GIGA school program . Japan Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/en/content/20200716-mxt_kokusai-000005414_04.pdf
  62. MEXT. (2020b). GIGAスクール構想の実現へ [For the realization of the GIGA school concept]. Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/other/index_00001.htm
  63. MEXT. (2020c). 新型コロナウイルス感染症の状況を踏まえた大学等の授業の実施状況 (Implementation status of university and college class during the COVID-19 pandemic). Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200527-mxt_kouhou01-000004520_3.pdf
  64. MEXT. (2020d). 新型コロナウイルス感染症対策のための学校の臨時休業に関連した公立学校における学習指導等の取組状況について (Status of teaching in public schools relevant to school disclosure to prevent the COVID-19). Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200421-mxt_kouhou01-000006590_1.pdf
  65. Michel, A. Y. K. (2018). Culture in EFL Teaching: Teacher Beliefs and Pratices in Ivorian Secondary Schools. American Journal of Educational Research, 6(12), 1600-1604.
  66. Microsoft Corporation. (2023). Microsoft Certified Educator. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/certifications/microsoft-certified-educator/
  67. Min, Q., Ji, S., & Qu, G. (2008). Mobile commerce user acceptance study in China: a revised UTAUT model. Tsinghua Science and Technology, 13(3), 257-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1007-0214(08)70042-7
  68. Mueller, P. A., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2014). The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages of longhand over laptop note taking. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1159-1168. https://doi.org/d1o0i.1or1g7/170/.01197576/7095767198776188178713773
  69. Muto, T., Kubo, Y., & Oshima-Takane, Y. (1980). Why don't Japanese students ask questions? Japanese Psychological Review. https://doi.org/10.24602/sjpr.23.1_71
  70. Nae, N. (2020). Online learning during the pandemic: Where does Japan stand? Euromentor Journal, 11(2), 7-24.
  71. Nikolić, V., Petković, D., Denić, N., Milovančević, M., & Gavrilović, S. (2019). Appraisal and review of e-learning and ICT systems in teaching process. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 513, 456-464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2018.09.003
  72. Nistor, N., Göğüş, A., & Lerche, T. (2013). Educational technology acceptance across national and professional cultures: a European study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(4), 733-749.
  73. Nistor, N., Lerche, T., Weinberger, A., Ceobanu, C., & Heymann, O. (2014). Towards the integration of culture into the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(1), 36-55.
  74. OECD. (2020). School education during COVID-19 - Were teachers and students ready? Japan - Country Note. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/education/Japan-coronavirus-education-country-note.pdf
  75. OECD. (2022). Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en
  76. Okada, R. (2016). Conflict between critical thinking and cultural values: Difficulty asking questions and expressing opinions in Japan. Asian Education Studies, 2(1), 91. https://doi.org/10.20849/aes.v2i1.122
  77. Owen, S., Palekahelu, D., Sumakul, T., Sekiyono, E., & White, G. (2018). Systematic educational change and teacher skill-building in developed and developing countries: the importance of teacher peer learning groups. Teacher Development, 22(4), 447-463. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2017.1403370
  78. Reynolds, R., Aromi, J., McGowan, C., & Paris, B. (2022). Digital divide, critical‐, and crisis‐informatics perspectives on K‐12 emergency remote teaching during the pandemic. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 73(12), 1665-1680. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24654
  79. Rienties, B., Giesbers, B., Tempelaar, D., Lygo-Baker, S., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2012). The role of scaffolding and motivation in CSCL. Computers & Education, 59(3), 893-906. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.04.010
  80. Rogers, E. M. (2010). Diffusion of innovations. Simon and Schuster.
  81. Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018). Japan’s English-medium instruction initiatives and the globalization of higher education. Higher Education, 75(1), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0125-1
  82. Rose, H., McKinley, J., & Galloway, N. (2021). Global Englishes and language teaching: A review of pedagogical research. Language Teaching, 54(2), 157-189. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444820000518
  83. Sahin, I. (2006). Detailed review of Rogers' diffusion of innovations theory and educational technology-related studies based on Rogers' theory. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 5(2), 14-23. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1102473
  84. Saito, H., & Ebsworth, M. E. (2004). Seeing English language teaching and learning through the eyes of Japanese EFL and ESL students. Foreign Language Annals, 37(1), 111-124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2004.tb02178.x
  85. Shin, J., Lee, H., & Kim, Y. (2009). Student and school factors affecting mathematics achievement: International comparisons between Korea, Japan and the USA. School Psychology International, 30(5), 520-537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034309107070
  86. Siddiq, F., Hatlevik, O. E., Olsen, R. V., Throndsen, I., & Scherer, R. (2016). Taking a future perspective by learning from the past–A systematic review of assessment instruments that aim to measure primary and secondary school students' ICT literacy. Educational Research Review, 19, 58-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.05.002
  87. Sugimoto, Y. (2020). An introduction to Japanese society. Cambridge University Press.
  88. Tajino, A., & Tajino, Y. (2000). Native and non-native: what can they offer? Lessons from team-teaching in Japan. ELT Journal, 54(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/54.1.3
  89. Tam, A. C. F. (2015). The role of a professional learning community in teacher change: a perspective from beliefs and practices. Teachers and Teaching, 21(1), 22-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2014.928122
  90. Tejero, O. M. C. (2022). Residual post-pandemic ICT literacy in higher education: The case of foreign language teachers and students in Japan. HUMAN REVIEW. International Humanities Review/Revista Internacional de Humanidades, 11(Monográfico), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.37467/revhuman.v11.3997
  91. Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2017). Understanding the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and technology use in education: a systematic review of qualitative evidence. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(3), 555-575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-016-9481-2
  92. Tsuji, Y., Takahira, M., Inaba, R., & Taguji, M. (2023). コロナ禍におけるオンライン授業の ICT 利用に基づく類型と学生の受講態度との関連 (The relationship between types of ICT online classes during the Covid-19 crisies and students’ attitudes). Journal of Japanese Society of Educational Engineering, 46(4), 653-666. https://doi.org/10.15077/jjet.46032
  93. UNESCO. (2022). Guidelines for ICT in education policies and masterplans. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380926
  94. van As, F. (2018). Communities of practice as a tool for continuing professional development of technology teachers’ professional knowledge. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 28(2), 417-430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-017-9401-8
  95. Vial, G. (2019). Understanding digital transformation: A review and a research agenda. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 28(2), 118-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsis.2019.01.003
  96. Voogt, J., & Roblin, N. P. (2012). A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: Implications for national curriculum policies. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 44(3), 299-321. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2012.668938
  97. Williams, C. H. (2017). Teaching English in East Asia: A teacher’s guide to Chinese, Japanese, and Korean learners. Springer.
  98. Wong, G. K. (2015). Understanding technology acceptance in pre-service teachers of primary mathematics in Hong Kong. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 31(6). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1890
  99. Yushau, B. (2006). Computer attitude, use, experience, software familiarity and perceived pedagogical usefulness: The case of mathematics professors. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2(3), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75461
  100. Zhu, C. (2010). Teacher roles and adoption of educational technology in the Chinese context. Journal for Educational Research Online, 2(2), 72-86. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:4576